James Burgin

Introduction

The Text Corpus | Division of PTAC | Further Reading | About PTAC

The corpus of Hittite economic-administrative texts thus far discovered is very is small when compared to those of contemporary powers of the late Bronze Age. It has been estimated that only 538 administrative texts and text fragments of any type have been recovered out of the approximately 30,000 tablet fragments found at Ḫattuša (Hout Th.P.J. van den 2020c, 165). However, from the perspective of day-to-day administration, this number is deceptive, since it includes the the long-term text categories of land grants (“charters”), festival ration lists (“MELQĒTU-texts”), and tablet inventories. The land grants were dispositive records, retained by the palace and the grant-recipients as proof of legitimate tenure and then archived for centuries afterwards; the festival ration lists were, or became, texts of tradition that were inseperable from festival themselves; and the tablet inventories were probably shelf-lists for organizing and recovering tablets. If one restricts the count to the "living" economic texts that presumably administrated the finance of the Hittite state, one arrives at a smaller number: 356. Of this number, 333 texts were found at Ḫattuša and 23 texts at various provincial sites, most notably Maşat Höyük-Tapikka (Monte G.F. del 1995a).

Even allowing for rigorous recycling or disposal of economic records and the chances of preservation, the overall rarity of economic-administrative texts in every Hittite archive discovered to date is striking. It suggests that textualized economic administration, at least on clay, was the exception in the Hittite kingdom. Why this is the case is disputed. Almost all clay tablet records found so far concern the management of wealth in the form of durable goods, often in connection to furnishing the cultic system (Burgin J. 2022a, 90–92, 97–99). This leads to the impression that control of luxury goods was the primary concern of the Hittite central administration. Administration of agricultural matters, which was perhaps the main economic interest of the Hittite state in the provinces (d'Alfonso L. – Matessi A. 2021a), does not seem to have been regularly recorded on clay based on current evidence.1 While this could change with the discovery of a new archive, it seems at the moment that either most local Anatolian economic administration was conducted using pre-Hittite techniques, such as seals and oral communication. It is also possible that administration was conducted on perishable media such as wooden tablets, although the scope and focus of this "administration on wood" remains unclear (Cammarosano 2024). In either case, there little perceptible interface between the seals and wooden tablets and the economic-administration as it is preserved on clay (Burgin J. 2022a, 111–114).

The Texts: The Palace-Temple Administrative Corpus (PTAC)

The vast majority of the 356 texts recording the daily Hittite economic administration take the form of lists. Most of these, 261, fall into the CTH 240–250 range of the Catalogue des textes hittites. This range is conventionally labeled as “Inventory Texts”, but beyond inventories includes lists of purchased items, work orders for manufactured goods, and records of distributed items. The contents are almost exclusively durable goods such as metals, wool, textiles, tools, luxury objects, and so forth, with foodstuffs nearly absent. Lists of persons (CTH 231–237; 52 texts), field texts (CTH 239; 25 texts), and itineraries and lists of places (CTH 230, 238; 18 texts) round out the economic-administrative texts, although the itineraries and lists of places have an uncertain position in Hittite economic administration and may have served other functions.

The Palace-Temple Administrative Corpus (PTAC) is a subset of the “Inventory Texts” of CTH 240–250, comprising all of the texts found at Ḫattuša in this category. The corpus was first edited in Košak S. 1982a and Siegelová J. 1986a. At the time of Siegelová’s work, the number of texts stood at 138. With the new publication of the corpus in Burgin J. 2022a and Burgin J. 2022b the total now stands at 252. A detailed discussion of the form, contents, and division of the corpus can be found in Burgin J. 2022a, 105–142, with previous literature.

The general lack of "meta-data" in the corpus (e.g., names of administrators, controlling institutions) and the fact that two-thirds of the tablets are missing find-spots make the sub-division of the PTAC into natural archives impossible. The known find-spots cluster around the palace complex on Büyükkale (41 texts) and the storerooms of Temple 1 (35 texts) – hence the designation "Palace-Temple Administrative Corpus". All of the texts are unica in the strict sense, but there are some instances of duplicated or quasi-duplicated passages between the texts. Rather than a purely textual phenomenon, these seem to reflect groups of items being documented at different stages of administration. The most extreme example is the so-called KASKAL Main Text (Burgin J. 2022b, 325–356), a transport text which shows at least four administration stages (Burgin J. 2022a, 143–168), each with minor adjustments to the contents of the chests.

In terms of contents, the PTAC documents the income, manufacturing, distribution, and inventorying of natural resources and manufactured goods by the Hittite state. Metal, wool, luxury goods, religious paraphernalia, and occasionally weapons predominate in the inventories. Inventories mentioning foodstuffs of any sort are exceedingly rare. Although no archives can be reconstructed, comparing contents and find-spots shows that the "dynamic inventories" concerning intake and manufacture tend to be found at the palace complex on Büyükkale, whereas the "static inventories" concerning long-term storage and repair and maintenance tend to be found at the storehouses of Temple 1. This suggests that income and manufacturing was administered from the palace, which then diverted much of this wealth to the temple system for storage and use (Siegelová J. 1986a, 10, 440; Hout Th.P.J. van den 2006c, 86).

Concerning the dating of the corpus, almost all texts of the PTAC seem to come from the late reign of Ḫattušili III and early reign of Tudḫaliya IV, i.e., from the early second-half of the 13 cent. BC. As with other Hittite texts, the tablets are never dated, so this must be inferred from prosopography and paleography. Two texts, KBo 55.4 and KBo 13.254, appear to be from the late Old Hittite or early Middle Hittite period based on their script. Perhaps not coincidently, these two texts seem to record real estate transactions/land tenure agreements, which are otherwise absent from the PTAC. The fact that the texts of the PTAC are restricted to such a small range of years suggests that economic texts were disposed of, their clay probably recycled for the composition of new tablets, after a period of time. The existence of the two OH/MH texts, as well as the MH texts from Maşat Höyük, means that we can expect textualized economic administration in earlier periods of Hittite history, but it is impossible to guess the scale until a further archive is discovered.

Division of the PTAC

Given that no natural grouping of the texts can be perceived from the find-spots, the PTAC can be divided in two ways: descriptively or functionally. A descriptive division focuses on the features of the texts, such as whether they record items in chests, or whether the items are raw materials or finished objects. This is the most objective approach, and, for the sake of "future-proofing" the corpus, is the one that has been used to classify the texts into their CTH numbers. The functional approach critically examines the texts to determine how they fit into a reconstructed administrative system. The near absence of meta-data makes it a more subjective endeavor, requiring close reading, inference, and argument. This is approach used to organize the editions of Burgin J. 2022b. There the texts were divided into five broad categories: Income, Circulation, Expenditure, Storage, and Miscellaneous, each with subcategories. The criteria used for each category is discussed in Burgin J. 2022a, 129–140. A functional approach was also used in Siegelová J. 1986a, with different results, showing how interpretation of these texts can vary from scholar to scholar (see Burgin J. 2022a, 122–129, for the differences between the two schemes).

Only the descriptive approach to dividing the texts is used in this online edition of the PTAC. The reader is encouraged to consult the functional schemes of Burgin J. 2022a, the introductory analyses for each text in Burgin J. 2022b, and Siegelová J. 1986a for further research.

The CTH numbers are divided as follows (see Burgin J. 2022a, 115–121, for more detailed discussion):

CTH 240 “Texts Concerning Sales, Purchases, and Exchange”

The main criterion for classification in CTH 240 is the presence of a sales transaction, especially the mention of a sales price (ŠÀM), but any text recording barter or compensated exchange, whether in silver or in kind, should be included.

CTH 241 “Inventories of Chests (.I Inventories, .II Transportation Texts (ŠA KASKAL))”

The primary criterion for inclusion in CTH 241 is the presence of a container, usually ^GI/GIŠPISAN or ^GIŠtuppaš, in which items are stored. This formal criterion leaves the category broad, so that it includes texts from what must have been different stages of administration. CTH 241 is divided into two subcategories: 241.I “Inventories”, which are simple lists with no additional criteria, and 241.II “Transportation Texts”. The diagnostic feature of the Transportation Texts category is the presence of a “KASKAL-formula”, the common of which is the phrase ŠAKASKAL 'of the caravan' placed at the end of a paragraph or of the text.

CTH 242 “Texts Concerning the Crafting of Metal Objects (.I Gold and Silver, .II Copper)”

Criterion for inclusion in the CTH 242 is the recording of any stage of metal crafting, which is most often the smithing of an object with the verb iye/a- ‘to make’, but also includes other stages such as smelting (zanu-). When a verb is not preserved, the presence of a weighed quantity of metal followed by one or more finished objects is sufficient to classify a text here through inference. The category is subdivided into 242.I “Gold and Silver” and 242.II “Copper”, since these metals are always segregated in the crafting texts.

CTH 243 “Texts Concerning Textile and Leather Production (.I Wool and Hide Processing, .II Textile Manufacture)”

This category is the counterpart to the metal crafting texts of CTH 242. The two subcategories are 243.I “Wool and Hide Processing” and 243.II “Textile Manufacture”. The “Wool and Hide Processing” texts record the distribution of lots of raw wool and animal hides to named individuals. There is often no explicit verb of transaction, nor are any verbs of dyeing or processing mentioned, and so most of the texts can only be inferentially identified by quantities of wool or numbers of hides followed by named individuals. In the case of wool, these are usually women. The “Textile Manufacture” subcategory comprises texts related to any stage of the manufacture of finished textiles. These may be identified for the most part by quantities of dyed wool followed by one or more finished garments. Texts involving other stages, such as embellishing (MAŠLU), washing or walking (A-za arnu-), and cutting (iškallai-), are also included.

CTH 244 “Inventories of Domestic Tribute (MADDATTU) (.I Metals and Durable Goods, II. Wool and Garments)”

The primary criterion for classification of a text in CTH 244 is the description of an item as MADDATTU 'tribute'. All places mentioned so far in the texts of CTH 244 were internal to the Hittite kingdom, suggesting the "tribute texts" were actually a form of taxation. The highly standardized format of the MADDATTU texts allows for inferential classifications to be made with high confidence. Since copper and wool tribute are never mixed, texts concerning the materials are segregated into two subcategories. Under CTH 244.I are texts recording the delivery of metals, which thus far consist exclusively of copper and tin, in the form of ingots and token objects (axes, sickles, arrowheads). Chariots and weapons are also listed in some of these texts as tribute, hence the inclusion of durable goods in the title. Under CTH 244.II are texts recording the delivery of dyed wool and small numbers of garments.

CTH 245 “Texts Concerning Distributions and Handouts (.I Under Supervision (ĪDE), .II To Named Individuals, .III Other)”

This category contains texts recording of any instance of unremunerated distribution or granting of goods. There are three subcategories. The first are those of CTH 245.I, the so-called “ĪDE texts”. These are a well-defined group identified by a sequence of large amounts of metals and finished goods followed by groups of recipients identified by town name or profession and the name of a high-ranking official as the subject of the Akkadian verb īde ‘he knew’. A more heterogenous group of texts involving handouts to named persons is placed under CTH 245.II “To Named Individuals”. These consist of lists of items followed by a personal name, sometimes in dative case with a preceding ana. All other scenarios of handout or distribution are placed under CTH 245.III “Other”.

CTH 246 “Complex Inventories (.I Named, .II Fragments)”

CTH 246 designates inventories distinguished by the regular use of explicit syntax, including sentence particles and clitic chains, and a higher level of detail than normal inventories. Some of the texts, classified under the subcategory CTH 246.I “Named”, also include the name of the official responsible for the inventory, either in the colophon or at the end of a section. Inventories that show unusually high detail and/or explicit syntax but do not preserve a name are placed under CTH 246.II “Fragments”.

CTH 247 “Inventories Concerned with Condition and Maintenance”

The primary criterion for inclusion in the new category CTH 247 “Inventories Concerned with Condition and Maintenance” is the regular presence of a notes on the conditions of the items. Usually this is in the form of simple notes on damage, but some texts also mention a process of repair. While other categories of texts can have isolated comments on condition, especially CTH 246 “Complex Inventories” and CTH 248.II “Detailed Description of Cult Images”, the notes on condition in these texts are infrequent enough to be considered incidental to their main classification. In CTH 247, the notes on condition appear with most or all items listed.

CTH 248 “Inventories Connected with the State Cult (.I Temple Inventories with Comment on Provisioning, .II Detailed Descriptions of Cult Images, .III Texts Concerning Votive Objects, .IV Inventory Fragments of Cult Images and Figurines)”

The texts of CTH 248 are inventories in the strict sense: lists of items presumably stored in one place. It is divided into four subcategories. The first is CTH 248.I “Temple Inventories with Comment on Provisioning” (2 texts), which classifies comprehensive inventories showing a wide variety of temple goods (cult images, ornaments, textiles) and also including documentation of offering rations. The second category, CTH 248.II “Detailed Descriptions of Cult Images” (7 texts), contains texts characterized by detailed, paragraph-length descriptions of cult images, which describe each body part by material and often include measurements. The third category, CTH 248.III “Texts Concerning Votive Objects” (8 texts), includes both descriptions of the production of votive objects for deities and also inventories of objects in storage inscribed with the names of what must be presumed to be the donating king. Finally, CTH 248.IV “Inventory Fragments of Cult Images and Figurines” (6 texts) contains inventories of cult images and figurines that are not detailed enough to be included among CTH 248.II and also too fragmentary to be classified elsewhere in CTH 248.

CTH 249 “Inventories and Inventory Fragments (.I Mixed Inventories, .II Textiles and Garments, .III Precious Metal and Stone Objects and Jewelry, .IV Ivory and Ebony Objects, .V Weapons and Tools)”

These are inventories that do not fall under any of the above categories. These are often simple lists of items that lack the explicit syntax and detail that would otherwise classify them under CTH 246 “Complex Inventories” and that also do not include the votive objects or cult images that would place them among CTH 248 “Inventories Connected With the State Cult.” Nevertheless, the fact that many of the texts categorized in CTH 249 were found at Temple 1 suggests that many, if not most, of the inventories are records of temple property. The category is subdivided by the contents. Under CTH 249.I “Mixed Inventories” are simple inventories containing more than one type of item: these almost always contain garments plus additional amounts of precious metal, ivory, or wooden objects. Under “CTH 249.II Textiles and Garments” are fragments only showing textiles and/or garments. The categories CTH 249.III “Precious Metal and Stone Objects and Jewelry” and CTH 249.IV “Ivory and Ebony Objects” likewise show only items made of gold, silver, and precious stones (which are almost always set in precious metal) and ivory and ebony, respectively. It is almost certain that most of the fragments themed by material in the categories of CTH 249.II, .III, and .IV would be moved to CTH 249.I “Mixed Inventories” if they were better preserved. In contrast, the few texts under CTH 249.V “Weapons and Tools” would probably remain separate, since these record functional items made of wood and base metal that were probably part of a single packing list for a military expedition.

CTH 250 “Miscellaneous Inventories and Administrative Fragments”

This final category is reserved for texts that cannot be classified into any of the other categories. In some cases this is because the fragments are too small, but any texts that are distinct without warranting their own category (e.g., a pair of copying exercises), span more than one classification (e.g. a re-used tablet showing wool processing text on one side and an inventory of chests on the other), or are otherwise difficult to classify (e.g., the lists of precious metal and stone objects that may in fact be equipment for use in rituals) are also included.

Further Reading

Researchers on Hittite economic administration are in the fortunate position of having a number of recent works to consult. The most current overview of Hittite economics is found in Klinger J. 2022b. To this can be added some recent articles such as Burgin J. 2022c; Torri G. 2023a; Vigo M. 2023a; and Vigo M. 2024a, among others. An overview of the history of the research of the Hittite state can be found in Burgin J. 2022a, 1–104. Cammarosano M. 2018a, especially the chapter on "Economics of the Local Cults" (pp. 139–158), adds a religious administrative perspective (see also Cammarosano M. 2021a for editions of the texts). Bilgin T. 2018a and Hout Th.P.J. van den 2022a approach Hittite administration from a the perspective of the officials who staffed it. A new study of the lists of persons (CTH 231–237) and field texts (CTH 239) is sorely lacking, so the reader must turn to the literature cited for the respective categories in the online Konkordanz. Finally, the texts of CTH 240–250 found at Ḫattuša and elsewhere have received full editions in Burgin J. 2022b and Burgin (forth.).1 The reader should consult those works for detailed discussion of how the texts should be interpreted, both individually and as a corpus.

About the PTAC Project

The research for the PTAC project was conducted by between 2017 and 2021 at the University of Würzburg as part of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft Individual Research Grant (Project number 382183667): ‘Critical Edition, Electronic Database, and Systematic Analysis of the Hittite Palace Administrative Corpus (CTH 240–250, 503, 504, 513)’. Dr. James Burgin served as the researcher and project Lead. The results of the project were published in Burgin J. 2022a, Burgin J. 2022b, Burgin J. 2022c, and Burgin J. 2022d, with futher research in Burgin J. 2023a and Burgin (forth.).1 Manual validation of the online transliterations of the texts was accomplished with the assistance of Henry Lewis and Ege Dağbaşı (Würzburg). The electronic editions of the texts were produced with the assistance of Helen Young (Würzburg).

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